Test graduate students' understanding of judicial review standards used by constitutional courts to balance national security and civil liberties in democratic constitutions, including doctrines of deference, standards of review (e.g., strict scrutiny, rational basis, proportionality), necessity and least-restrictive-means tests, procedural safeguards and evidentiary rules in security cases, classifications of security measures (surveillance, emergency powers, derogations), comparative case law analysis, and the ability to apply these frameworks to fact patterns and critique judicial reasoning and remedies.