Assess students' ability to apply causal inference methods—propensity score matching (PSM), inverse probability weighting (IPW), and instrumental variables (IV)—to estimate treatment effects in observational healthcare studies. Require selection of an appropriate method for given confounding structures, specification and implementation of models, diagnostic checks (covariate balance, overlap, instrument strength), estimation and interpretation of average treatment effects, and discussion of key assumptions, sensitivity analyses, and common pitfalls in reporting.