Assess understanding of acid–base equilibria and buffering in biological systems, covering pKa and dissociation principles, the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation, calculation of buffer pH and capacity, effects of adding acid/base or dilution, and key physiological buffers (bicarbonate, hemoglobin, phosphate) with relevance to blood pH and common acid–base disorders; includes both conceptual explanations and quantitative problems appropriate for adult learners in professional development.