Assess students' understanding of the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers and the system of checks and balances in the U.S. federal government; include allocation of powers under Articles I–III, key constitutional mechanisms (veto, appointments, impeachment, judicial review, congressional oversight), relevant Federalist/anti‑Federalist perspectives, and analysis of historical or contemporary case examples to evaluate how institutional interactions constrain or enable policy and accountability. Skills tested: identify provisions, explain mechanisms, analyze interactions and tensions, and critically evaluate effectiveness and limits.